Beyond sticks and carrots? Policy that uses people’s intrinsic motivations

What factors and dynamics should governments consider when designing policies to encourage people to change their behaviour and habits? An article in Policy Design and Practice discusses why it is so difficult to anticipate the effects of a specific policy mix. The article introduces intrinsic motivation-driven policies – those policies that require a change in individual behaviour based on intrinsic motivation. Examples include measures to reduce tobacco consumption, promote the use of bicycle helmets and increase vaccinations. 

Compliance and policy design

Predicting the effects of a public policy program is challenging. Policy instruments do not always produce predictable effects. Uncertainty often surrounds the consequences generated by specific policy instruments or policy mixes. One of the main sources of uncertainty lies in how policy recipients respond to policy initiatives. Will they cooperate to support its success, or will they resist and contribute to its failure?  

The policy literature highlights the need to activate, persuade and motivate citizens to secure their compliance. The target population for any policy consists of a diverse range of individuals who may react differently to policy interventions. Their behaviour may depend on a myriad of motivations in addition to self-interest – these include reciprocity, altruism, civic-mindedness, trust and conversely, resentment, suspicion or spite. 

About intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is defined as “the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence”. This means that people engage in an activity because they find it inherently interesting, valuable or enjoyable. Various studies show that the motivations driving people’s behaviour are not only diverse, but they can also: 

• coexist within the same individual 
• differ in intensity 
• depend on the cultural context and social norms  
• vary over time. 

When these insights are applied to the design of public policies, policy recipients may not respond uniformly to policy initiatives. This poses a major challenge for policy designers, particularly when dealing with what are termed “intrinsic motivation-driven policies” (IMDPs).  

IMDPs differ from other policies in that they face a higher degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty often revolves around identifying the most effective policy mix to achieve compliance among recipients, while avoiding resistance or backlash as this could lead to policy failure. 

Examples of intrinsic motivation-driven policies (IMDPs)

The article presents several examples of IMDPs. These illustrate the dilemmas that policymakers face when designing policy mixes aimed at enhancing compliance in areas where individuals’ intrinsic motivations must be addressed. 

 1. Tobacco control policies: One size does not fit all

The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control adopts an approach focused on minimising both the demand for and the supply of tobacco products through a range of policy instruments. Guidelines and resources are provided to support government in implementing this strategy. The outcomes in reducing habitual smoking differ significantly. 

Studies have demonstrated that motivation is the most critical factor in the smoking cessation process. Intrinsic motivations—such as those related to health concerns and self-control—are the most significant in driving the decision to quit smoking and sustaining this decision over time.

2. The unintended effects of mandatory bicycle helmet laws

Promoting helmet use through legal mandates and relying on extrinsic motivations to encourage behaviour can lead to “unintended effects”. This includes: 

• feeding “negative” extrinsic motivations, such as discouraging bicycle use because of cost. 

• risk compensation as cyclists wearing helmets may perceive a lower risk of injury, which could lead to riskier behaviour. 

This underscores a dilemma in designing IMDPs. Low-intrusive interventions based on information or nudging techniques risk being ineffective. 

3. Compulsory vaccination and the mobilisation of anti-vaccine movements

Mandating vaccines can politicise the issue of vaccination freedom, triggering a rapid expansion of the anti-vaccine movement. Movements have strengthened their advocacy efforts and attracted new followers. They have even sown doubt among individuals who were previously supportive of vaccines. 

Highly intrusive instruments may result in a boomerang effect. This polarises the political issue, reinforces compliance aversion on the part of hesitant individuals, and potentially erodes positive intrinsic motivations to “behave properly” over the medium term. 

The uncertain link between policy instruments and compliance

The examples shed light on the dynamics inherent in the unpredictable effects of policy design on compliance. They include: 

• the importance of context. The same policy mixes can produce different outcomes depending on the context. 
• unintended effects due to convenience or social conformity. 
• the differentiated reactions of the target population. Certain policy initiatives may have discouraged a segment of the population that was previously motivated.  
• activation of potentially opposed people. Policies that enforce or recommend a particular course of action can mobilize potential opponents or sceptics. 

The bottom line

From a policy designer’s perspective, IMDPs highlight the critical importance of taking context into account and avoiding one-size-fits-all solutions. They also underscore the need for policymakers to develop a deep understanding of the target population. This understanding should include an in-depth examination of the psychological dynamics of recipients, as well as how different policy instruments might affect their intrinsic motivation to comply or not 

Leading targets to comply. Uncertainty issues in the design of “intrinsic motivation-driven policies” – Stefania Profeti and Federico Toth, Policy Design and Practice, February 2025. 

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